Tetanus is caused by a toxin released from Clostridium tetani and occurs worldwide.  Tetanus bacteria are present in soil and manure and may be introduced through open wounds such as a puncture wound, burn or scratch.

Prevention
Travellers should thoroughly clean all wounds and seek appropriate medical attention.

Tetanus vaccination

• Travellers should have completed a primary vaccination course according to the UK schedule.
• If travelling to a country where medical facilities may be limited, a booster dose of a tetanus-containing vaccine is recommended if the last dose was more than ten years ago even if five doses of vaccine have been given previously.

Country specific information on medical facilities may be found in the ‘health’ section of the FCO foreign travel advice website.

Tetanus in brief

Hepatitis A is a viral infection transmitted through contaminated food and water or by direct contact with an infectious person. Symptoms are often mild or absent in young children, but the disease becomes more serious with advancing age. Recovery can vary from weeks to months. Following hepatitis A illness immunity is lifelong.

Those at increased risk include travellers visiting friends and relatives, long-stay travellers, and those visiting areas of poor sanitation.

Prevention

All travellers should take care with personal, food and water hygiene.

Hepatitis A vaccination

Vaccination is recommended for those whose activities put them at increased risk. This includes:

• those who are staying with or visiting the local population
• frequent and/or long-stay travellers to areas where sanitation and food hygiene are likely to be poor
• adventure travellers visiting rural areas and staying in basic accommodation such as backpackers
• those with existing medical conditions such as liver disease or haemophilia
• men who have sex with men
• injecting drug users
• those who may be exposed to the virus through their work
• those going to areas of hepatitis A outbreaks who have limited access to safe water and medical care
  
  

Hepatitis A in brief

Hepatitis B is a viral infection; it is transmitted by exposure to infected blood or body fluids. This mostly occurs during sexual contact or as a result of blood-to-blood contact (for example from contaminated equipment during medical and dental procedures, tattooing or body piercing procedures, and sharing of intravenous needles).   Mothers with the virus can also transmit the infection to their baby during childbirth.

Hepatitis B in Montenegro
2% or more of the population are known or thought to be persistently infected with the hepatitis B virus (intermediate/high prevalence).

Prevention
Travellers should avoid contact with blood or body fluids. This includes:

• avoiding unprotected sexual intercourse.
• avoiding tattooing, piercing, public shaving, and acupuncture (unless sterile equipment is used).
• not sharing needles or other injection equipment.
• following universal precautions if working in a medical/dental/high risk setting.

A sterile medical equipment kit may be helpful when travelling to resource poor areas.

Hepatitis B vaccination
Vaccination could be considered for all travellers, and is recommended for those whose activities or medical history put them at increased risk including:

• those who may have unprotected sex.
• those who may be exposed to contaminated needles through injecting drug use.
• those who may be exposed to blood or body fluids through their work (e.g. health workers).
• those who may be exposed to contaminated needles as a result of having medical or dental care e.g. those with pre-existing medical conditions and those travelling for medical care abroad including those intending to receive renal dialysis overseas.
• long-stay travellers
• those who are participating in contact sports.
• families adopting children from this country.

Hepatitis B in brief

Rabies is a viral infection which is usually transmitted following contact with the saliva of an infected animal most often via a bite, scratch or lick to an open wound or mucous membrane (such as on the eye, nose or mouth). Although many different animals can transmit the virus, most cases follow a bite or scratch from an infected dog. In some parts of the world, bats are an important source of infection.

Rabies symptoms can take some time to develop, but when they do, the condition is almost always fatal.

The risk of exposure is increased by certain activities and length of stay (see below). Children are at increased risk as they are less likely to avoid contact with animals and to report a bite, scratch or lick.

Rabies in Montenegro
Rabies has been reported in domestic and wild animals in this country. Bats may also carry rabies-like viruses.

Prevention

• Travellers should avoid contact with all animals. Rabies is preventable with prompt post-exposure treatment.
• Following a possible exposure, wounds should be thoroughly cleansed and an urgent local medical assessment sought, even if the wound appears trivial.
• Post-exposure treatment and advice should be in accordance with national guidelines.

Rabies vaccination
Pre-exposure vaccinations are recommended for travellers whose activities put them at increased risk including:

• those at risk due to their work (e.g. laboratory staff working with the virus, those working with animals or health workers who may be caring for infected patients).
• those travelling to areas where access to post-exposure treatment and medical care is limited.
• those planning higher risk activities such as running or cycling.
• long-stay travellers (more than one month).

A full course of pre-exposure vaccines simplifies and shortens the course of post-exposure treatment and removes the need for rabies immunoglobulin which is in short supply world-wide.

Rabies in brief

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a viral infection transmitted by the bite of infected ticks. Less commonly, cases of TBE occur following ingestion of unpasteurised milk products.

Travellers are at increased risk of exposure during outdoor activities in areas of vegetation (gardens, parks, meadows, forest fringes and glades). Ticks are usually most active between early spring and late autumn.

Tick-borne encephalitis in Montenegro

There is a risk of TBE in some areas of this country. The main affected areas are the coastal regions of the Adratic Sea. The transmission season varies, however, ticks are most active during early spring to late autumn.

Prevention

• All travellers should avoid tick bites during outdoor activities.
• Travellers should check their skin regularly for ticks and remove them as soon as possible with a recommended technique.
• Travellers should not eat or drink unpasteurised milk products.

Tick-borne encephalitis vaccination

Vaccination is recommended for those visiting affected areas whose activities put them at increased risk including:

• Those who will be going to live in TBE risk areas
• Those working in forestry, woodcutting, farming and the military
• Travellers to forested areas, e.g. campers, hikers, hunters and individuals who undertake fieldwork
• Laboratory workers who may be exposed to TBE

Tick-borne encephalitis in brief